Demanding conditions expose senior leaders to difficult leadership challenges, resulting in high levelsof stress and mental health issues. Whether coaching-based executive leader development programsconfirm this by, in addition to leadership, also considering the leader's health and what characterizesthese programs, especially the coaching component, is still an unconsolidated field of knowledge.Therefore, the current scoping review explored the characteristics and emerging key findings ofcoaching-based executive leader development programs for senior leaders, and their encompassing ofhealth. The review was based on Arksey and O’Malley’s framework for searching social scienceliterature. PsycINFO, ProQuest One Business, and Scopus were searched, identifying 258 referencesand 18 unique references: up to the 25th of August 2023. The review revealed a mixture of leadershipaspects in the program intentions whereas health was the notable exception. Phases of blendedlearning and one-to-one and group coaching shaped the programs which lasted for months, up toseveral years. The programs enhanced leadership aspects categorized as strategic and operational,collaborative and relational, and psychological, as well as a few health-related aspects. Leadersappreciated a health focus when given the opportunity as well as safe, sound, reflexive, andperspective-giving coaching.

Leaders at higher organizational levels, like lieutenant colonels in the military and senior executive club directors in elite team sports organizations, are two underresearched leader-level-specific populations. They operate in two contexts that differ in their focus on military operations versus sporting events. However, their similarities include a shared overarching responsibility for organizational objectives, training, preparation, and the performance optimization of their staff, teams, and units to ultimately win against opponents in physically and mentally stressful circumstances. In such conditions, leadership is essential for success. Addressing similarities while being aware of the differences has inspired a psychological cross-contextual leadership research approach. This aligns with the call for increased mutual research between the military and sport. We need a more profound understanding of how high-level military and sportleaders respond to tough situations and their inherent leadership challenges. Examining how those circumstances affect the leaders’ performance and mental health, and what psychological skills they use to enhance their performance, provides valuable information to leader development initiatives. To further inform such practice, it is valuable to study leader development programs. Hence, this thesis investigates high-level leaders in military and sport using a psychological cross-contextual leadership research approach. This approach means examining leadership from a psychological lens among two or more populations operating in their respective distinct contexts, with the aim of comparing and integrating the results to identify common patterns. Two initial qualitative empirical studies anda subsequent quantitative empirical study employ this approach, followed by a final scoping review on coaching-based executive leader development programs. The overriding aim was to improve knowledge of the similarities between high-level military and sport leaders’ performance, psychological skills, and mental health under demanding conditions. Additionally, the thesis aimed to enhance the understanding of coaching-based executive leader development programs and their encompassing of health. More specifically, Study I aimed to simultaneously explore high-level military and sport leaders’ real-life experiences of similarities in demanding conditions and their psychological manifestations. The results revealed four common themes of demanding conditions. They were briefly labeled as developing organizations, dealing with destructive superiors and subordinates, taking care of others' moods and minds, and periods of extreme concentration. These conditions were mainly manifested by high cognitive, emotional, and physical stress reactions. Study II aimed to explore similarities in the performance of leadership behaviors and the application of psychological skills under demanding conditions. A cognitive–behavioral thematic structure model was generated and illustrated a dynamic setup of functional–purposeful leadership behaviors, as well as a combined set of psychological skills. To balance the initial qualitative studies, Study III, a longitudinal questionnaire study, investigated how demanding conditions were related to self-rated leader performance level and mental health indicators. Furthermore, the study explored whether the use of psychological skills influenced these relationships. The study revealed that demanding conditions had no effect on leader performance. However, they had a negative impact on the leaders’ vitality and were associated with higher stress symptoms. As an integrated psychological skill for emotion regulation, however, mindfulness and cognitive reappraisal had a positive impact on vitality. Based on the findings from Studies I-III, the final Study IV was a scoping review aimed at exploring the characteristics and emerging key findings of coaching-based executive leader development programs and their encompassing of health. The findings revealed that these programs rarely include health. However, a few principal discoveries indicated that a focus on health can enhance leaders’ wellbeing. These findings pave the way for the overt inclusion of health in similar interventions. In addition, a combination of individual coaching and group coaching is advised. In summary, the current thesis improves our understanding of high-level military and sport leaders’ performance, psychological skills, and mental health under demanding conditions. The similarities identified in these areas promote further psychological cross-contextual leadership research, which corresponds with the call for mutual research between the military and sport. Furthermore, the thesis provides insights into coaching-based executive leader development programs and their integration of health. Altogether, this thesis provides guidance for cognitive-behavioral leader-development initiatives to support leaders inimproving both their wellbeing and performance under demanding conditions.

Research shows that high-level military and sport leaders share a high-stress and high-stakes leader role due to similar experiences of demanding conditions mainly manifested in psychological burden. This raises research questions about leaders' psychological strategies to maintain their mental health and performance under demanding conditions. Thus, the current study investigated how experienced demanding conditions were related to self-rated leader performance level and mental health indicators among high-level military and sport leaders and whether the application of psychological skills by these leaders moderated these relationships. A composite questionnaire was used to collect data longitudinally, once a week for four consecutive weeks. Fifty-two Swedish high-ranking military officers and executives in elite team sport organizations completed the questionnaire. Multilevel analysis revealed no effect of demanding conditions on leader performance, but they harmed leader vitality and were associated with higher stress symptoms. Moreover, psychological skills did not moderate the relationship between demanding conditions and leader performance. However, motivational and instructional self-talk negatively moderated the relationship between demanding conditions and vitality. In contrast, emotional regulation, comprised of mindfulness and cognitive reappraisal, positively moderated vitality. Emphasizing the nuanced application of psychological skills is crucial while avoiding one-sided beliefs about their positive effects. Interventions are suggested to focus on vitality and related psychological skills to ensure leaders feel good while performing under demanding conditions. More cross-contextual leadership research, suggestively applied research, is needed to better understand the links between high-level military and sport leaders' psychological skills, leader performance, and mental health under demanding conditions. © 2024 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Senior executives in sports and high-ranking military officers are mutually engaged in highstressand high-stakes leader roles arising from similar experiences of demanding conditions.However, cross-contextual research focusing on high-level leaders’ psychological skills andleadership behaviors in maneuvering demanding conditions is wanted. Thus, the current studysimultaneously explored the likeness between high-level military and sport leaders’experiences of their performance of leadership behaviors under demanding conditions and theapplication of psychological skills as a driving force behind performance. Sixteen interviewsof high-ranking military officers and senior sports executives (four men and four women ineach group) were conducted, followed by an inductive reflexive thematic analysis. Acognitive-behavioral thematic structure model was generated and illustrated high-levelmilitary and sports leaders’ experiences of what leadership behaviors they experienced wereimportant to perform to maneuver demanding conditions and achieve organizationalobjectives. The findings revealed that what these leaders have in common is their use ofprogressive and evolutionary leadership, consisting of a combined set of leadership behaviorsoverarchingly themed as 'advancing' and 'evolving,' each with several sub-themes, forexample, 'targeting' and 'transforming.' Moreover, the leaders described the application ofhighly personalized and combined psychological skills as leader performance enhancers,overarchingly labeled ‘self-forwarding’ and ‘self-attuning.’ Leadership coaches and otherprofessionals can improve their leadership service delivery competence by using thesuggested model, which depicts psychological skills and leadership behaviors in collaborativeaction. Quantitative longitudinal and mutually applied leadership research can be conductedon high-level military and sport leaders to further understand their performance.

High-level military and sport leaders face similar demanding conditions, high workloads, and stress, leading to mental health issues. Even if mental health issues among leaders have shown deteriorating leadership and high levels of mental health have an increased likelihood of better performance (athletes), it is not clear how mental health is related to high-level military and sports leaders’ performance. Based on the prevailing field of knowledge about these leaders’ demands and stress, mental health may be a stress-buffer necessary for leader performance. However, research on leaders’ mental health and performance has received limited attention, and more research into its possible inseparability is warranted. This study explored similarities in high-level military and sports leaders’ experiences of their mental health and leader performance under demanding conditions. Cross-contextual qualitative research can provide a context-transcendent, understanding of mental health and leader performance, guiding future research and the application of leadership coaching. Sixteen in-depth, semi-structured interviews were performed with eight Swedish high-ranking military officers (four men and four women) and eight Swedish sport executives (four men and four women). Their average age was 47.5 years. Through an inductively thematic analysis (TA) of the interviews, the following four themes were generated: (1) mental health under siege—it’s still possible to perform; (2) the strength of social support and stable life conditions; (3) keeping physically fit—a strong helper; and (4) self-confidence and mental strategies keep you in the fight. These findings suggest that high-level military and sport leaders are mentally robust under pressure but not immune. Hence, it is advantageous to further enhance the mental strategies they already use for maintaining leader performance under pressure and reduced mental health. It is also valuable to holistically consider their social and physiological well-being in leader development initiatives such as leadership coaching for the sake of their mental health.

Military and sport have attracted increased research interest separately as two distinctly demanding performance- and leadership-driven contexts. However, cross-contextual psychological research in leadership is lacking. Such research has potential to expose unique cross-fertilising insights into resemblances in leadership challenges among military and sports leaders, transferable to a broader range of contexts. Thus, the current study simultaneously explored high-level military and sport leaders’ real-life experiences of similarities in demanding conditions and their psychological manifestations. Sixteen participants – eight Swedish high-level military leaders and eight Swedish high-level sports leaders, participated in the study. Using a qualitative inductive cross-contextual design enabled in-depth knowledge and transferability. A reflexive thematic analysis (RTA) of sixteen interview transcripts generated four common themes of demanding conditions: (1) Developing organisations: Leading under extensive workload and responsibility, (2) Managing destructive superiors and subordinates: Standing up for oneself, (3) Taking care of the minds and moods of others: Leading deliberated difficult conversations, and (4) Periods of extreme concentration: Leading critical coordination, decisions, and timing. In the findings, own severe stress reactions to dealing with and manoeuvring multiple leadership challenges and the struggle with resources and interaction with individuals are commonly identified responses among the participants. High-level military and sports leaders are tied into a high-stress, high-stakes leader role. Implications are presented.