Overweight people claim to be mistreated by the fashion industry. Fashion companies disagree. Despite the controversy, actual research has been scarce. This study compares the sizes of clothes that the four leading mass-marketing fashion retailers in Sweden offer to the body sizes of the population. Although branding theory would support the idea of rejecting fat consumers to improve user imagery for fashion brands, such practices were not evident. The main contribution of this article is that it provides the first quantified empirical evidence on the theory of typical user imagery. In the discussion, it is posited that, although mass-market fashion brands should be susceptible to negative user imagery related to overweight and obese users, the companies avoid such problems by making garments that are not directly attributable to a specific brand, thus mitigating the negative effect of overweight and obese user imagery. © 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

In recent years, there has been a considerable interest in Malaysian manufacturing firms in New Product Development (NPD) which is considered to be indirectly a booster for the success of a firm. The purpose of the study is to highlight the NPD processes and methods used in Malaysian industry. This paper focuses only on the formal NPD-processes and NPD-strategies. From the available database, it is found that there are 250 confirmed companies from automotive, chemical, and electrical industries, which have R&D facilities; out of which 36% have agreed to participate in the survey, and 29% questionnaires have been used. The results show that the best firms have their R&D and NPD departments either overseas or partially in Malaysia.

Innovation is paramount to success. Over time firms must maintain their ability to innovate in order to maintain their competitive edge. In this paper we explore the role human resource management has in nurturing and enhancing the innovative capability of the firm. To explore HRM activities, functions and processes that enhance or impede innovativeness we conducted a literature review. Following this review, 10 propositions have been made that link HRM to both incremental and radical innovativeness respectively. Our results include suggestions for empirical studies to validate our propositions as well as some managerial implications.

Purpose: This paper aims, by a direct comparison, to address the differences and similarities of the internationalization processes of multinational companies both from developed and emerging countries.

Design/methodology/approach: This study employed qualitative approach, using an integrated model of internationalization process. Multiple case studies, with two companies with significant involvement in foreign markets and originating in countries with different levels of development, were carried out.

Findings: The results reveal that the case companies show some differences with regards to their use of ownership advantages to facilitate their internationalization. On the other hand, learning and experience of internationalization, coupled with the use of networks, have been factors that have influenced the pace and the pattern of the case companies' internationalization. An integrated model, which includes variables related to networks and learning/experience, may contribute to the understanding of the case of multinational companies from emerging economies.

Originality/value: Although the research field of emerging multinationals has been growing lately, very few attempts have been made in the sense of directly comparing the internationalization process of firms from both developed and emerging countries. The authors proposed an integrated analytical model that draws on insights from the eclectic paradigm and the Uppsala internationalization model. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

This article is an argument in favour of the importance of having different perspectives for different situations in marketing. Since the 1990s, relationship marketing has become an accepted stream in marketing research. However, this type of marketing consists of many different perspectives. Here, the network approach is covered. Its origin and its divergence from the mainstream marketing mix approach are discussed. It is concluded that Swedish culture and context influenced the development of the network approach. However, the network view is not pertinent to all marketing situations in Sweden and the approach is also useful outside of the Swedish context. Finally, it is argued that marketing research should benefit from many different perspectives and approaches that could be applicable to different marketing situations.

The aim of this book is to provide a wider perspective of the marketing field, particularly at a time when the field of marketing is expanding and developing in new and different directions. Unlike the more traditional literature, this book affords a deeper insight into the new marketing avenues of services marketing, business-to-business marketing and relationship marketing. Several other relevant marketing-related areas are also presented.

An international team of distinguished authors contribute their expertise, which provides a comprehensive overview of recent marketing developments. (Från förlaget)

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of a born global firm’s early internationalization process and the entrepreneur’s decisions regarding internationalization by using effectuation theory.

Design/methodology/approach

An explorative case study is used to explore if effectuation theory is a fruitful alternative perspective compared with the dominant paradigm (causation), which is primarily used in earlier studies on born globals.

Findings

The study shows how a born global company could enter many markets in short time, by co-operating with local network partners. The founders’ prior knowledge and networks were important to understand the rapid international expansion. Effectuation theory focuses on the entrepreneurs’ ability to create opportunities together with network partners and is a useful tool to understand the development in the born global firm.

Research limitations/implications

The study shows that effectuation theory holds promise for developing the international entrepreneurship area. Future research is recommended to focus not only on the entrepreneur’s competencies but also on the entrepreneur’s behaviour, including during the time before they started the firm.

Practical implications

Decision-makers in the early development of born global firms are recommended to use his/her own and his/her company’s resources and network. Also advantage should be taken of opportunities when they are recognized or created, instead of focusing on traditional planning activities.

Originality/value

There are few studies which have used effectuation theory as a basis for understanding the early development of a born global firm.

Vad utmärker det växande företaget? Vilken betydelse har entreprenören för det växande företaget? Dessa och många andra frågor besvaras i denna bok.

Vad utmärker det växande företaget? Varför växer vissa företag medan andra stagnerar eller rent av minskar i storlek? Vilken betydelse har entreprenören för det växande företaget? Agerar växande företag på ett sätt som skiljer dem från andra företag? Använder växande företag speciella strategier och organisationsformer? I vilka miljöer växer företag? Ovanstående frågor – och många andra – besvaras i den här boken.

Den vänder sig till studenter, praktiker och beslutsfattare som är intresserade av att fördjupa sina kunskaper om växande företag och hur de fungerar. Boken bygger på författarens forskning om svenska snabbväxande företag, och de teoretiska diskussionerna illustreras med exempel från svenska företag.

This paper analyses growth patterns in three high-growth Swedish firms (Intentia, IBS, and in the enterprise resource planning (ERP) industry. A multi-theoretical framework is developed and used to analyse the firms' growth. It is concluded that growth is a complex phenomenon that has to be viewed from different theoretical angles to be understood. It is shown that entrepreneurs' intentions, international growth strategies, organic organisations, industry structure and networks, and national cultures are all factors that influence firms' growth.

Purpose

– The purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of a born global firm’s early

internationalization process and the entrepreneur’s decisions regarding internationalization by using

effectuation theory.

Design/methodology/approach

– An explorative case study is used to explore whether

effectuation theory is a fruitful alternative perspective compared with the dominant paradigm

(causation), which is primarily used in earlier studies on born globals.

Findings

– The study shows how a born global company could enter many markets in a short time,

by co-operating with local network partners. The founders’ prior knowledge and networks were

important to understand the rapid international expansion. Effectuation theory focuses on the

entrepreneurs’ ability to create opportunities together with network partners and is a useful tool to

understand the development in the born global firm.

Research limitations/implications

– The study shows that effectuation theory holds promise for

developing the international entrepreneurship area. Future research is recommended to focus not only

on the entrepreneur’s competencies, but also on the entrepreneur’s behavior, including during the time

before they started the firm.

Practical implications

– Decision-makers in the early development of born global firms are

recommended to use his/her own and his/her company’s resources and network. Also advantage

should be taken of opportunities when they are recognized or created, instead of focusing on

traditional planning activities.

Originality/value

– There are few studies that have used effectuation theory as a basis for

understanding the early development of a born global firm.

Internationalization of the firm traditionally has been examined using theoretical frameworks that do not focus on the firm's marketing context. In this paper, it is argued that international growth strategies are different for firms in different marketing contexts. Different international growth strategies for manufacturing and service companies in consumer and business-to-business market are studied. Using case studies, the study identifies different barriers in different marketing contexts and identifies different international growth strategies. The study shows that various internationalization theories are appropriate in different marketing contexts.

The important questions in a firm's internationalization strategy deal with which national markets they should enter and the order in which the chosen markets should be entered. Different theoretical scenarios provide a range of answers to these questions. In this article, it is argued that the appropriateness of the theories depends on the industrial context to which it is applied. The international development of some Swedish firms in mature and high-growth industries is discussed. Whether a theory is appropriate depends on the firms' degree of internationalization and whether the industry is mature or growing. International entrepreneurship literature has been shown to enhance understanding of the early stages of a firms' internationalization in growing industries.

Principal Topic

Why firms choose to establish themselves in certain markets is a question that has been discussed by different researchers. One of the most used concepts when discussing this question is psychic distance. In this article the concept is compared with other researchers’ views of market choice. Moreover, various theories are used to analyze the market choice of different Swedish firms. The international developments of some Swedish firms are shown in case studies, where market choice in mature and high growing industries is discussed. Is psychic distance still relevant to understand firms’ market choice? If not, which other theories can be useful to understand firms’ market choice?

Method

Cases from the rubber product industry is chosen to illustrate internationalization in a mature industry and cases from the ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) industry are chosen to illustrate internationalization in a high growing industry. The cases was chosen because their international development illustrated various situation where theories could be compared with the firms’ actual behavior.The case studies are built on secondary data, such as business magazines, annual reports and internal documents, but mainly on personal interviews. I interviewed the individuals that personally took part in the decisions and implementation of the companies’ different establishments abroad, such as chairmen of the boards, presidents, export directors, area managers, export salesmen, presidents of subsidiaries, etc. More than 50 individuals were interviewed. The individuals who had the greatest influence on the internationalization processes were interviewed several times. Former interviews led to the identification of individuals who were central in the internationalization process. The interviewees have had the opportunity to read and comment on the drafts of the different cases.

Implications

The conclusion is drawn that different theories are relevant in various situations. Psychic distance is identified as a partial model and different theories are appropriate dependent of the firms’ degree of internationalization and if the industry is mature or growing. Decision-makers are recommended to careful analyze their own situation and use different models in various situations.

A longitudinal study of the international behaviour of Swedish suppliers is presented. Three different types of supplier are identified: simple suppliers, advanced suppliers, and own product suppliers. Factors influencing the internationalisation of these suppliers are discussed. It is concluded that the firms' offer and the customers' buying strategies influence the firms' international behaviour. However, these factors do not determine the international strategies completely. Various entrepreneurs will choose various strategies. Three different types of entrepreneurs are identified: the marketing, technical, and structural entrepreneurs. The type of entrepreneur influences the firms' international strategies in different directions.

There are 2 dominant views in international business research: the economic and the process view. In this study it is shown that these views give some insight into the complex phenomenon of the internationalization of the firm. However, the understanding of various international behaviors in the firm's first international ventures as well as of radical strategic changes is enhanced by an analysis focusing on entrepreneurs.

Relationship marketing during the nineties has become an accepted approach in marketing research. This type of marketing, however, consists of many different perspectives. Here, the network approach is covered. This perspective’s origin and its differences to the marketing management approach are discussed. It is concluded that the development of the network perspective was influenced by its Swedish context, however the network view is not pertinent on all marketing situations in Sweden. Finally it is argued that research in marketing should prosper with many different perspectives that could be applicable for different marketing situations.

The aim of this paper is to shed light on how a born global can obtain continued growth internationally, in institutionally distant markets. We are seeking a deeper understanding of international growth for born global enterprises by combining theories of networks and institutional perspective. We discuss how institutional distance affects the internationalization processes in born globals. We seek to highlight why and how a born global firm does enter different markets. In this respect, born globals from developed countries and those from emerging markets are compared, leading us to derive some propositions from our discussions. Finally some suggestions for future research are presented.

The aim of this paper is to investigate born global firms’ use of innovative solutions and their networks to create sustainable competitive advantages as they expand and grow in different international markets. Consequently, born globals’ use of their own firm-specific advantages and their access to complementary resources and activities of their network partners are analyzed to aid our understanding of the provision of innovative solutions that lead to growth. We use a qualitative case study approach of five born global companies. A focus group interview with the CEOs in the companies is used to gain deep insight into innovation and internationalization processes that underlie the case companies’ international growth. The study shows that the use of the entrepreneur-CEOs’ personal networks and business networks have been assets that have accorded the firms’ strong position in international markets. It can be concluded that the born global firm has strategies to tap on complementary assets of external network parties. 

The aim of this paper is to investigate born global firms’ use of innovative solutions and their networks to create sustainable competitive advantages as they expand and grow in different international markets. Consequently, born globals’ use of their own firm-specific advantages and their access to complementary resources and activities of their network partners are analyzed to aid our understanding of the provision of innovative solutions that lead to growth. For this purpose we use a qualitative case study approach of five born global companies. A focus group  approach with the CEOs in the companies is used to gain deep insight into innovation and internationalization processes that underlie the case companies’ international growth. The study shows that the use of the entrepreneur-CEOs’ personal networks and business networks have been assets that have accorded the firms’ strong position in international markets. It can be concluded that the born global firm has strategies to tap on complementary assets of external network parties.  The Born global firms learn from own experiences and those of others, with whom the firms interact in foreign markets, to create innovative solutions for international growth.

Importance and key contribution

Research on firm’s that already from inception see the whole world as a market and/or the whole world as a source to access resources, so called born globals (Andersson & Wictor, 2003), have been growing during the last decades (Jones, Coviello and Tang, 2012).  These firms are characterized of innovative business models that are competitive on the global market already from inception (Hennart, 2013). To succeed with a continued international expansion, the born global firms need to adapt their respective business models for a more complex environment; in more institutionally remote markets. The continued growth phase of born globals are scarcely treated in earlier research (Gabrielsson & Gabrielsson, 2013).

Earlier studies on Born Globals have focused on Born Globals’ development in western, developed countries. Therefore there is a need to examine Born Globals’ activities on emerging markets (Kiss et al, 2012). The attractiveness and growth opportunities in emerging markets are perceived to be higher than what obtains in other conceivable markets of the world (Cavusgil, Knight, and Risenberger, 2012).

Important in this stage is handle relationship with different stakeholders on a global base. An important tool to handle this relationship is the companies’ branding strategy. Few studies have combined research on born globals’ internationalization and branding (Gabrielsson, 2005) and there is a need to further develop the knowledge about branding and international growth. This study aims to explore how born global companies are using brand management when growing on emerging markets. This study contributes to the international entrepreneurship field by exploring growth on emerging markets, it also contributes by adding knowledge from the brand management field to explore international growth.

Theoretical base

In recent studies the “global” part in the BG has been criticized (Lopez, Kundu and Ciravegena, 2009, Rugman and Almodovar, 2011). Some researchers argue that there a very few really Born Global firms with activities in the three economic and political power bases in the world. NAFTA, EU and the largest eight Asia-Pacific economies (Rugman and Almodovar, 2011). Implicit in research on Born Global firms is that distance (geographic, psychic, cultural, and institutional) is no longer an important issue when the international behaviour and international performance in a Born Global is discussed. We argue that the reason for that is a bias in the research treating Born Global firms with focus on companies that both have their origin and target markets in high-developed economies. Peiris, Akoorie and Sinha (2012) showed that most studies on Born Global firm were done on firms originating in developed countries and only a few studies were done on firms from emerging countries. Studies from emerging countries mainly were done on Chinese firms and very few studies has treated firms from Middle east, Africa or South Asia. Another reason why the Born Global research has not focused on institutional differences can partly be explained by the fact that the Born Global studies have looked internally at firm-specific factors (e.g. using resource-based view and knowledge-based view of the firm as a theoretical domain) (Andersson, Evers and Kuivalainen, 2014; Knight and Cavusgil, 2004).

We argue that institutional differences affect Born Globals’ international behaviour (scope, speed, and entry mode); and to investigate how institutional distances affect Born Global firms, it is important to include nations with a variety of institutional and cultural characteristics. Born Global firms from developed countries entering institutionally distant markets will meet a context that is different from their home markets. Regulations, culture etc. differ and relationships are often fewer and weaker than, the companies’ relationships with western companies.  Born Global companies from developed countries still first focus on other developed countries, followed by emerging markets (e. g China and Brazil). We argue that institutional distance still matters and that firms from developed countries still have more and stronger networks in other developed countries. More research is needed two explore how this influence Born Global firms’ internationalization processes.

Most studies on born globals have focused on firms in a business-to business context. Also this study is focusing on this sector. Even if most brand management studies have focus on business-to consumer sectors, there is an increasing stream of literature that has shown the importance of brand management also in business-to business settings (Gabrielsson & Gabrielsson, 2005). Brands are used to build relationships with customers. In emerging markets, western companies have fewer and weaker relationships, as the distance is longer (see the discussion above. Research is needed to explore how brand management can be used to create and sustain relationships on emerging markets. The above discussion lead us to the following research questions.

Research questions

How do born globals manage the organization’s international growth in in emerging markets?

Which role has brand management to create and sustain relationships with internal and external stakeholders on emerging markets?

Method and Findings

Emprical data will be gathered during the Spring 2015. A case approach is considered as the most appropriate to catch the complexity of value creating process in international network context (Yin, 1994). The case study approach is under-represented in studies about internationalization and has been recommended as a fruitful way to expand the knowledge in this area (e.g Andersson, 2000, Cavusgil, 1980). Eisenhardt (1989) recommends case studies as a fruitful way to give a deeper insight in conflicting literature, as well as sharpening the generalizability of different theoretical standpoints which is an important goal in this study. There is a need to learn more about special types of firms and not only to look for the average firm (Andriani and McKelvey, 2007). The close relationship already established with the firms will make it possible to receive information that is hard to get access to with other methods (Welch et al, 2002).

The cases will be built built on action research in co-operation with the partner firms, work-shops, personal interviews and observations but complemented with secondary data, such as, annual reports and internal documents. The individuals who have the greatest influence on the internationalization processes will be interviewed. Interviews and observations will lead to the identification of individuals/actors who are central in the international value creating processes. This includes actors outside the focal company, such as customers, suppliers, and co-operation partners. Our long co-operation with the companies has created trustful relationship between the researchers and the company representatives.

The analysis of the data will include several steps. The information from interviews and other sources will be written down in descriptive narratives. This process allows the researcher to become intimately familiar with each case and allows the unique patterns of each case to emerge before cross-case comparison (Eisenhardt, 1989). The analysis will be carried out together with companies and results will be a base for decisions in each companies as well as part in academic research.

Patterns will be identified among the cases (Yin, 1994). Earlier theoretical findings will be compared with the international development in the cases. Thereafter, the theory will be revised and the findings examined again. The reasoning is, in other words, not entirely inductive or deductive (Yin 1989). Following Eisenhardt’s (1989) recommendations, the analysis will include several iterations between theory and data.

Implications

The study will also give knowledge about pros and cons with different localisation alternatives on emerging markets. It is easy to just follow management trends (everyone should out-source production and buy supplies from China) and “go with the flock” instead of get knowledge of different alternatives. The comparison between the different firms will increase the knowledge about when different alternatives are suitable.

Globalization and increased liberalization of markets have made it possible for many firms, large or Small and Medium –Sized Firms (SMEs), to be in many foreign markets, especially those in the global industries (Czinkota and Ronkainen, 2007; Doole and Lowe, 2008, 2004). Since trade barriers among markets have fallen dramatically, due to the effects of globalization, intense competition in many markets, and the spread of technological improvements in almost all sectors of any economy, many firms (small or large) seek to establish their presence in many foreign markets (Awuah, et. al., 2011; Doole and Lowe, 2008; Driffield and Love, 2007). Studies abound to shed light on why and how firms internationalize their business activities (Andersson, 2011; Moen, et al., 2004; Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Johanson and Vahlne, 1990, 1977; Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975). Although increased globalization, trade liberalization, and technological improvements do enable many firms (e.g. “Mininationals” or “Born Globals”) to serve several markets (Doole and Lowe, 2008; Czinkota and Ronkainen, 2007), there has emerged an intense competition among firms in all countries (Peng et al., 2008; Czinkota and Ronkainen, 2007; Beamish and Lu, 2004). For many SMEs, a number of factors (e.g. lower trade barriers, increased competition, rapid technological developments, shrinking market opportunities in domestic market, and firm-specific advantages combine to drive their rapid entry into foreign markets (Andersson, 2011; Peng et al., 2008; Moen, et al., 2004). SMEs that have, from the very inception of their establishment, had the drive to internationalize their business activities are termed “Born Global Firms”, in the subsequent sections to be addressed just as born globals (Andersson, 2011; Rialp et al., 2005; Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Madsen and Servias, 1997). 

Previous studies about a firm’s internationalization has predominantly concentrated on big multinational firms, where their motives for internationalization, the pace and pattern of their internationalization have been widely studied (Qian and Delios, 2008; Johanson and Vahlne, 1990, 1977; Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975; Cavusgil, 1984; Coviello, 2006). In recent times studies have emerged, which have found out that the pace and pattern of the internationalization of big multinational firms are not in line with the pace and pattern, through which born globals, for example, internationalize their business activities (Andersson, 2011; Andersson and Wictor, 2003; Moen, et al., 2004; Rialp, et. al., 2005; Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Madsen and Servais, 1997).  

However, extant literature is virtually silent on what it takes for a born global (a small international player with limited resources, for example) to compete with big and resourceful multinational enterprises in many international markets. Our contention is that born globals’ ability to use innovative solutions to create sustainable competitive advantages as they aspire to expand and grow in international markets will be very crucial. The pace and pattern at which born globals internationalize their businesses, in the face of intense competition in almost all markets, in order to provide innovative solutions that enable them to achieve competitive advantages in the marketplace is under-researched. This has been an important reason for the study of the present phenomenon.   As stressed by Doole and Lowe (2008), products and services offered by firms, these days, are becoming ‘commodities’ (i.e. ‘me too’ products/services), if firms are not able to differentiate the core product benefit or service by offering a bundle of benefits for target customers or users in a target market. For Porter (1985), the competitive advantage of a firm grows fundamentally out of the value the firm can create for its customers, irrespective of the markets in which a firm operates.  Operating across borders, though offers opportunities, dealing with new set of macro-environmental factors (e.g. politics, laws, economics, cultures, and societies) and intense competition, will demand that a born global, for example, differentiates its products and services that will help it to meet similar needs and wants of its transnational customers, while it adapts to meet different market-specific requirements and/or needs of customers (e.g. Doole and Lowe, 2008). And for Doyle and Stern (2006), a firm that is good at satisfying customer needs, better than its competitors can do, has the best opportunities to grow and expand. Hence, Born Globals and their growth and expansion narratives are worth studying.

In view of the above, the purpose of the present study is to investigate a born global’s use of innovative solutions to create sustainable competitive advantages as it expands and grows in different international markets. To be able to achieve the above purpose, we seek to address the following research questions:

1. Why and how does a born global firm enter any chosen foreign market?
2. Which strategies does the firm develop and implement in order to provide innovative solutions that will help achieve sustainable competitive advantages as the firm strives to grow and expand in the marketplace?
3. Does the firm use ‘go-alone’ strategies or does it use strategies that influence and are influenced by other actors and the effect thereof? 

The aim of this chapter is to shed light on how a born global can obtain continued growth internationally, in institutionally distant markets. We are seeking a deeper understanding of international growth for born global enterprises by combining theories of networks and institutional perspective. We discuss how institutional distance affects the internationalization processes in born globals. We seek to highlight why and how a born global firm does enter different markets. In this respect, born globals from developed countries and those from emerging markets are compared, leading us to derive some propositions from our discussions.

Finally some suggestions for future research are presented. 

The study of the initial steps in a firm's international development has traditionally been dominated by various forms of the 'stage theory', but these theories have been challenged more recently by evidence that rapid internationalisation can take place in certain firms contradicting the notion of gradual development that was an essential aspect of the stage-model perspective. Moreover, earlier studies and models have been developed in industrialised countries. The present study examines the internationalisation of Malaysian furniture firms and concludes that the traditional stage models are not suited to understanding the development of these firms. The firms did not expand in a gradual manner, and did not choose markets that were 'psychically close' to Malaysia. The emerging literature on 'born globals' was a better tool for understanding the development of these firms. However, this literature must be complemented with country-specific and industry-specific factors, if full understanding of the international expansion of firms in developing countries, such as Malaysia, is to be achieved.

Purpose – The purpose of this research is to identify and analyse the common characteristics and behaviour of entrepreneurs that affect the establishment of Born Global firms. The differences between the Australian and Swedish contexts will be scrutinized.

Design/methodology/approach – This study was designed to be qualitative in nature so that rich insights can be obtained directly from the entrepreneurs themselves. The sample consists of three Born Global firms each from Australia and Sweden.

Findings – This study shows the importance of entrepreneurs for the rapid internationalization of firms in Australia and Sweden. Different types of entrepreneurs were identified and small but important differences were identified between the two countries and different industries.

Research limitations/implications – This study shows that analysis on an individual level enhances the understanding of internationalisation in new firms. By using the concept marketing and technical entrepreneur in different industrial contexts a more detailed understanding of different internationalization patterns can be obtained. This study is limited to two countries and six case studies. The findings may be limited to the chosen firms and studies across more countries and industries are needed.

Practical implications – This study shows that the entrepreneur should be in focus when analysing new firms' possibilities to expand abroad. Entrepreneurs can use their international experience, visions, ambitions and networks as crucial competencies in an international expansion. Different types of entrepreneurs can use different international strategies.

Originality/value – The focus and detailed analysis on the individual level across different countries make this study original.

The most common denominator in Born Global research is probably the importance of the entrepreneur. Following these results this article will go deeper into how the entrepreneur influences the development of a born global firm. Studies have been carried out in many countries. To be able to draw conclusions on how the national context influences the Born Global phenomenon, this study compares findings from both Australia and Sweden.

Although there are many studies that have identified the impact of entrepreneurs and management on firms’ internationalisation, there is still a need for more research to enhance the understanding of born global firms’ international behaviour. This study aims to go one step further and try to do a more fine-grained analysis. How do entrepreneurs influence the development of Born Global firms in Australia and Sweden? Through a literature review the following points were identified:

• Number of people in the top management team
• International experience and industry experience
• Marketing/Technical entrepreneur and active/reactive internationalization strategy
• Global mindset
• Personal network

Method

A case approach was considered as the most appropriate to catch the complexity of the Born Global phenomenon. The case studies are mainly built on personal interviews but complemented with secondary data, such as business magazines, annual reports and internal documents. We interviewed the entrepreneurs that were involved in the founding of the Born Global companies.

The analysis of the data included several steps. The information from interviews and other sources were written down in descriptive narratives. This process allows the researcher to become intimately familiar with each case and allows the unique patterns of each case to emerge before cross-case comparison. To find common patterns, the cases were compared in terms of the issues identified in the literature review. Earlier theoretical findings were compared with the international development in the Australian and Swedish born global firms. Differences and similarities were discussed.

Conclusions

In this study we have shown the importance of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial teams for the rapid internationalization of firms in Australia and Sweden. We can conclude that there were no big differences between the developments of the Born Global firms in the two countries. However one interesting difference turned up. In Australia the country image was negative for selling high-tech products within Australia. The country image has an impact on the company for go abroad. In this case it seemed like the country image was more negative within Australia than overseas. In Sweden, the country image was not a problem for the types of product studied. However, in the Swedish medical II case the company had problem to sell their product within Sweden. It has been very hard to get the product financed by the national health care system in Sweden, as the product cannot be classified as medicine or as a mean for disabled. In Germany this was not a problem. This shows that national differences still exists and it is important to deal with them to succeed. The entrepreneurs in the Born Global firms do not see these problems on the home market as discouraging but go on to fin markets overseas.

In this study we have focused on the entrepreneurs and found two different types. One common type of Born Global entrepreneur is the experienced employee, who works in a large organization and has ambitions and ideas that he found that he cannot fulfill in the large organisation. He is keen on starting a new business on his own or together with others who share his ideas and ambitions. The other is the younger, not so experienced, but ambitious with new ideas. He/she doesn’t want to be a part of a large organization, but want to fulfill his ideas in an own organisation. Both these types of entrepreneurs have a global mindset that they have acquired in different ways.

There is also a difference between marketing and technical entrepreneurs. Even if Born Global entrepreneurs have interests and skills in both these areas they are often most interested in one of these areas. In High-tech industries a fast internationalization can be possible without an active internationalization, as the high-tech product often is very specialized and the home market is too small in countries as Sweden and Australia. Internationalization does not have to be an issue in the founding process in a Born Global firm. In a more mature industry, however, an active internationalization is necessary to expand abroad.

The personal networks were very important for the entrepreneurs in the Born Global firms. The entrepreneurs with industry experience could use their contacts to expand their own business. Personal networks were also important to secure finance and to find partners in other areas. When the Born Global firms are created they are small with few financial resources. To be able to expand abroad they must cooperate with many others and these partners are found in personal networks

This article aims to advance theoretical knowledge of the development of dynamic managerial capabilities in international growing firms by reviewing and synthesizing available research into a conceptual framework. The framework explains how dynamic managerial capabilities, through international entrepreneurial actions, affect international growth. By including concepts from managerial dynamic capabilities theory, this article enriches understanding of a firm’s international development and growth.

This article’s findings contribute to the emerging field of capability development (Ambrosini et al., 2009; Gavetti, 2005) and to the international entrepreneurship area (Jones et al., 2011). This study advances the resource-based and dynamic capability research agenda by paying greater attention to the role of managers in strategic and organizational change. In particular, this study focuses on managerial capability development at the individual level. The focus on development over time provides a richer understanding of the interplay among managerial social capital, managerial human capital, and managerial cognition. This study also develops a model that shows how dynamic managerial capabilities through international entrepreneurial actions affect international growth. That is, contributions are given to provide understanding of why firms are able to grow rapidly internationally. 

Although networks have been shown in many studies to be critical for the international development of firms, surprisingly few studies have focused on the influence of local networks and global networks in the internationalisation of firms operating in industrial clusters. This study explores the internationalisation processes of small and medium sized firms operating in the medical technology cluster in the Rhone-Alp region in France. Firstly, we find that local and global networks influence the internationalisation processes of the case firms but in different ways. The influence of such networks were determined by the regional location, industry dynamics and the life-cycle of firms in the cluster. Second, internationalising firms found were Born Globals, led by entrepreneurs globally market-orientated from inception and Born Again Globals, late but rapid internationalisers. The internationalisation of Born Again Globals was triggered by a critical event that redirected the firm rapidly on to global markets late in their life-cycle. Thirdly, local networks were important for initiating internationalisation for the Born Global firm yet held limited importance for the Born Again Globals in the cluster. Local networks in the cluster were however, important for both Born Global and Born Again Globals for developing and internationalising their innovations.

This study explores the internationalization processes of small firms operating in the medical technology cluster in the Rhône-Alpes region in France. The study demonstrates that both the location and the sectoral type of industry cluster influence the internationalization and network dynamics in the cluster. In addition, both local and international networks influence firm internationalization processes in different ways. First, the firm life-cycle, industry and locational cluster dynamics determine the extent of network influence on firms' internationalization processes. Second, two types of internationalizing firms emerge in this study: born global firms, led by proactive entrepreneurs and globally market-orientated firms from inception, and born-again globals, which engage in late but rapid internationalization as a result of new management or foreign acquisition. Third, local networks in the cluster are important for influencing the internationalization of the born global firm at inception. In contrast, international networks serve as the main impetus for re-launching internationalization for the born-again globals. Fourth, the local research institutions and their connections abroad help both born globals and born-again global firms develop and internationalize their innovations rapidly in the global marketplace.

The main question raised in this article is whether there are any differences between the work activities of managers in small firms primarily operating on an international market and those managing firms doing business on a domestic market. If so, what are these differences, and what do they tell us about the internationalization of small firms? The comparative method used here is based on multiple approaches including interviews, diary studies, and direct observations. The conclusions indicate that managers in small international firms are more proactive in their networking behavior, delegate operative activities and devote more time to planned strategic activities connected with their international expansion than managers in other small firms. 

The main question raised in this article is whether there are any differences between the work activities of managers in small firms primarily operating on an international market and those managing firms doing business on a domestic market. If so, what are these differences, and what do they tell us about the internationalization of small firms? The comparative method used here is based on direct observation and analysis of about 2400 activities. The conclusions indicate that managers in small international firms are more proactive, delegate operative activities and devote more time to planned strategic activities connected with their international expansion than managers in other small firms.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the research on internationalization in small firms and research on managerial behavior, and it aims to develop new research questions that can enhance the understanding of the interface between these two areas.

Design/methodology/approach: A literature review of internationalization of small firms is carried out. It is concluded that understanding of managerial behavior in small international firms is in need of improvement. Therefore, the literature on managerial behavior is described, scrutinized and deployed in the context of small firms' internationalization.

Findings: No previous research has combined the research on small-business internationalization and managerial behavior. Hypotheses that can be empirically tested and new research questions that can yield a better understanding of the internationalization processes in small firms are developed.

Research limitations/implications: The hypotheses developed in this study have not yet been tested empirically. Further research is suggested to confirm and elaborate these propositions.

Practical implications: As the propositions in this study are not tested their practical implications are limited at present. However, earlier research has shown that there is a link between managerial behavior and firm behavior. Managers may be inspired by the study to reflect upon this link and adjust their behavior in ways that can improve their firms' international development.

Originality/value: In this paper the research on internationalization in small firms is merged with the research on managerial behavior. By adding knowledge from the latter research tradition, the understanding of small-firm internationalization should be advanced through raising novel issues and applying new methodological tools.