When planning optimal conservation strategies for wild and cultivated types of a plant species, a number of influencing biological and environmental factors should be considered from the outset. In the present study Brassica rapa was used to illustrate this: to develop Scandinavian conservation strategies for wild and cultivated B. rapa, DNA-marker analysis was performed on 15 cultivated and 17 wild accessions of B. rapa plus 8 accessions of the cross compatible B. napus. The B. rapa cultivars were bred in Sweden and Finland in 1944-1997 and the wild B. rapa material was collected from Denmark, Sweden and United Kingdom. The B. napus accessions were bred within the last 20 years in the Scandinavian countries. Results were based on scoring of 131 polymorphic ISSR markers in the total plant material. A Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) approach implemented in NewHybrids demonstrated a clear distinction of B. rapa and B. napus individuals except for three individuals that seemed to be backcrosses. The backcrossed hybrids descended from two Swedish populations, one wild and one escaped. The overall pattern of genetic variation and structure in B. rapa showed that cultivated and wild B. rapa accessions formed two almost separated clusters. Geographical origin and breeding history of cultivars were reflected in these genetic relationships. In addition, wild populations from Denmark and Sweden seemed to be closely related, except for a Swedish population, which seemingly was an escaped cultivar. The study point to that many processes, e.g. spontaneous introgression, naturalisation, breeding and agricultural practise affected the genetic structure of wild and cultivated B. rapa populations. © 2008 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

We examined the effect of thermal shock on the germination of seeds of three conifers, two introduced (Pseudotsuga menziesii and Pinus ponderosa), and one native to Patagonia (Araucaria araucana). Previous research has suggested increased susceptibility to invasions in burnt areas, and therefore, the effect of simulated fire (heat) on seed germination in these native and introduced species was compared. Seeds were heated to two different heat intensities (50°C and 100°C) for 1 or 5 min, which is within the temperature range reached in the upper soil layers during forest fires. Germination tests were then carried out in a growth chamber. The heat treatments had a negative effect on the germination of P. menziesii at temperatures of 100°C, and a negative effect on the germination of P. ponderosa at the temperature of 100°C and the exposure of 5 min. The heat treatments had no affect at all on A. araucana. The species with larger seeds (A. araucana) had higher survival rates after the thermal shocks. Also intraspecific differences in seed sizes possibly point at larger seeds surviving thermal shocks better than smaller seeds. In addition, thermal shock caused a delay in the onset of germination in the two introduced species, while it did not change the time for germination in A. araucana. © The Authors. Journal compilation © Nordic Journal of Botany 2010.

Clonal plants from poor habitats benefit less from morphologically plastic responses to heterogeneity than plants from more productive sites. In addition, physiological integration has been suggested to either increase or decrease the foraging efficiency of clonal plants. We tested the capacity for biomass production and morphological response in two closely related, rhizomatous species from habitats that differ in resource availability, Carex arenaria (from poor sand dunes) and C. disticha (from nutrient-richer, moister habitats). We expected lower total biomass production and reduced morphological plasticity in C. arenaria, and that both species would produce more ramets in high nutrient patches, either in response to signals transported through physiological integration, or by locally determined responses to nutrient availability. To investigate mineral nutrient heterogeneity, plants were grown in boxes divided into two compartments with homogeneous or heterogeneous supply of high (H) or low (L) nutrient levels, resulting in four treatments, H-H, H-L, L-H and L-L. Both C. arenaria and C. disticha produced similar biomass in high nutrient treatments. C. disticha responded to high nutrients by increased biomass production and branching of the young parts and by altering root:shoot ratio and rhizome lengths, while C. arenaria showed localised responses to high nutrients in terms of local biomass and branch production in high nutrient patches. The results demonstrated that although it has a conservative morphology, C. arenaria responded to nutrient heterogeneity through morphological plasticity. An analysis of costs and benefits of integration on biomass production showed that young ramets of both species benefited significantly from physiological integration, but no corresponding costs were found. This suggests that plants from resource-poor but dynamic habitats like sand dunes respond morphologically to high nutrient patches. The two species responded to nutrient heterogeneity in different traits, and this is discussed in terms of local and distant signalling of plant status. © 2010 German Botanical Society and The Royal Botanical Society of the Netherlands.

One of the most widely established invasive alien plant species in Sweden is the Japanese knotweed. A range of control measures exist, and there is great need of methods to evaluate their effectiveness. No single method currently guarantees eradication of the Japanese knotweed, hence there is considerable interest to develop more efficient techniques. One is heat treatment using steam or hot water. The effects of heat on above-ground biomass are easy to evaluate but it has proven to be more problematic to evaluate vitality of below-ground rhizomes, which can stay dormant under unfavorable conditions. We have therefore evaluated rhizome vitality using combined greenhouse trials and fluorescence microscopy observations with the vital stains fluorescence diacetate (FDA) and propidium iodide (PI). Fluorescence diacetate was effective in separating live rhizomes from rhizomes that were autoclaved at 121°C. However, while propidium iodide is routinely used to identify dead cells by staining their nuclei, unexpectedly few nuclei were stained in the heat-treated rhizomes. When temperature was reduced to 80°C for 1 hour, FDA indicated some live meristems. However, at 80°C for longer periods, no fluorescence was visible which indicated dead rhizomes. This shows the importance of treatment longevity in order to terminate persistent rhizomes of Japanese knotweed. Type of presentation: Flash talk. 

Coexistence between genetically modified (GM) and non-GM plants is a field of rapid development and considerable controversy. In crops, it is increasingly important to understand and predict the GM volunteer emergence in subsequent non-GM crops. Theoretical models suggest recruitment from the seedbank over extended periods, but empirical evidence matching these predictions has been scarce. Here, we provide evidence of long-term GM seed persistence in conventional agriculture. Ten years after a trial of GM herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape, emergent seedlings were collected and tested for herbicide tolerance. Seedlings that survived the glufosinate herbicide (15 out of 38 volunteers) tested positive for at least one GM insert. The resulting density was equivalent to 0.01 plantsm-2, despite complying with volunteer reduction recommendations. These results are important in relation to debating and regulating coexistence of GM and non-GM crops, particularly for planting non-GM crops after GM crops in the same field. © 2008 The Royal Society.

We test the hypothesis that the expansive horizontal clonal growth of Carex arenaria may provide a method of escape from soil-borne pathogens (fungi and nematodes) by growing away from the site of infection. Plants were grown in non-sterilized or sterilized dune sand, i.e., with or without soil-borne pathogens. The effects of soil-borne pathogens were studied on the whole genet, on the mother alone, and on the first primary rhizome. Genets with the mother plant infected produced less total biomass and had less biomass allocated to roots than genets with uninfected mothers. Infected genets had fewer primary rhizomes and lower total rhizome length, but rhizome specific weight or the distance between shoots did not decrease in infected plants. In C. arenaria, uninfected mothers with an infected first primary rhizome produced shorter and fewer rhizomes than uninfected genets. The infected first rhizome continued to grow at the same speed as uninfected rhizomes, probably by support from the uninfected mother plant. However, secondary rhizome branching was affected only by direct exposure to soil pathogens and not by the status of the mother plant. The results provide evidence that clonal growth may facilitate escape from soil-borne pathogens. The rhizome explores a patchy environment by supporting the growth of young tillers when passing pathogenic patches.

Naturvårdsverket har i regleringsbrevet för år 2009 fått i uppdrag av regeringen att redovisa vilka element som verket bedömer bör ingå i övervakningen av GMO som introduceras i miljön för försök eller i kommersiell odling. I samråd med Miljödepartementet har uppdraget avgränsats till att inte inkludera försök, utan enbart beröra kommersiell odling. Denna rapport utgör redovisningen av uppdraget.

I enlighet med EU:s direktiv 2001/18/EC skall övervakning av genmodifierade grödor utföras i samband med kommersiell odling. Övervakningsplanen utgörs av en allmän del med syfte att upptäcka oförutsedda effekter, och en fallspeci-fik del där risker som har framkommit vid miljöriskbedömningen övervakas. Om inga sådan risker framkommer görs ingen fallspecifik övervakning. Natur-vårdsverket presenterar i denna rapport förslag på parametrar som bör ingå vid övervakning av kommersiell odling av genmodifierade grödor. Förslagen gäller herbicidtoleranta grödor som i nuläget anses relevanta för svenska förhållanden (majs, raps och sockerbeta), potatis med förändrad stärkelsesammansättning, sockerbeta med virusresistens mot Rhizomania samt insektsresistenta (Bt) grö-dor. 

Vad gäller herbicidtoleranta grödor är övervakning av miljöeffekter orsakade av förändringar i herbicidanvändning viktigt. En förändrad herbicidanvändning kan leda till förändringar i ogräsförekomst och -sammansättning, vilket i sin tur kan ge effekter också på högre trofinivåer. Även uppkomst av resistens hos ogräs är en viktig riskfaktor. Herbicidtolerans anses normalt inte medföra någon förhöjd fitness i naturliga habitat, men förekomst av resistenta plantor (spill-plantor eller korsningar med vilda släktingar) utanför åkern bör övervakas med avseende på effekter av förhöjd fitness i habitat som kan påverkas av herbici-der, såsom åkerrenar, vägkanter och banvallar. 

Rhizomaniaresistens hos sockerbeta är en potentiellt fitnesshöjande egenskap, men endast om viruset förekommer i marken. Övervakning av eventuella resi-stenta spillplantor föreslås därför. För att undersöka potentialen för förändrad fitness hos eventuella hybrider med strandbeta behöver studier göras av Rhizo-mania-förekomst i strandbetans habitat. För att kunna bedöma risken för pol-lenflöde mellan sockerbetsodlingar och strandbeta behöver förekomsten av lokaler med strandbeta undersökas. 

För potatis med förändrad stärkelsesammansättning anses att potentialen för spridning är liten och att de potentiella riskerna med egenskapen är små, varför allmän övervakning föreslås vara tillräcklig. 

Vid odling av insektsresistenta grödor (Bt) måste åtgärder som förhindrar upp-komst av resistens hos målorganismerna utföras. Utöver detta bör möjliga effek-ter på icke-målorganismer övervakas samt studeras vidare inom oberoende studier. Oberoende studier behövs också på effekten av insektsresistens på bio-geokemiska kretslopp, liksom på spridning av insektsresistens via spillplantor eller genflöde till vilda släktingar, eftersom modifieringen i dessa fall kan med-föra en förhöjd fitness.

Möjligheterna att knyta GMO-övervakning till befintliga övervakningsprogram i Sverige diskuteras i rapporten. Generellt kan konstateras att inga program direkt verkar kunna användas för GMO-övervakning i sin nuvarande form. Potentiellt skulle fågeltaxeringens data för allmän övervakning kunna utnyttjas vid GMO-övervakning. Det är viktigt att främst de organismgrupper som kan komma att påverkas och därmed bättre användas som indikatorer i första ledet (framförallt växter och insekter) vid en eventuell miljöeffekt ingår i relevant miljöövervak-ning. Eftersom kunskap ofta saknas om effekter på markorganismer och mark-funktion kommer övervakning av dessa att behöva genomföras i relevanta fall. Övervakningen bör kompletteras av oberoende vetenskapliga studier relevanta för svenska förhållanden. 

Naturvårdsverket har i regleringsbrevet för år 2009 fått i uppdrag av regeringen att redovisa vilka uppgifter som verket bedömer behövs i miljöriskbedömningen av genmodifierade (GM) grödor för att kunna ta naturvårdshänsyn till långsiktiga effekter och effekter på icke-målorganismer. Denna rapport utgör redovisningen av uppdraget.

Utveckling och användning av genetiskt modifierade organismer (GMO) är förknippat med potentiella risker. En genomgång har gjorts av de grödor som i dagsläget är intressanta för svenska förhållanden (raps, sockerbeta, potatis och majs), vilka genmodifieringar som finns för varje gröda, och vilka potentiella effekter dessa genmodifierade grödor kan ha. Målen har varit att identifiera potentiella risker vid kommersiell odling och försöksodling av de aktuella grö-dorna, definiera vilka uppgifter som behövs för att kunna utföra en miljörisk-bedömning och undersöka kunskapsläget för dessa uppgifter. 

Enligt gällande EU-lagstiftning och inom vetenskaplig litteratur framhålls att miljöriskbedömningar ska genomföras baserat på ett fall till fall-förfarande. Nya transgena egenskaper utvecklas dock ständigt och det råder stor variation mellan medlemsländerna exempelvis avseende förekomst av icke-målorganismer och frööverlevnad. Detta innebär att det i praktiken är sällan som tillräckliga kunskaper finns om den aktuella grödan och miljön där den är tänkt att odlas kommersiellt, för att fullständigt kunna utvärdera de eventuella negativa effekterna i det specifika fallet. Här måste en rimlighetsavvägning göras av vilka uppgifter som anses nödvändiga mot bakgrund av de identifierade riskerna.

Jordbruksverkets beslut avseende försöksodling av genmodifierade grödor visar att merparten av försöksodlingarna gäller potatis, raps och sockerbeta, medan försöksodling av majs har förekommit två gånger. Genflödesproblematiken skiljer sig mellan grödorna. Majs har inga vilda släktingar som den kan korsa sig med i Sverige och potatis korsar sig inte med de befintliga svenska vilda släktingarna, medan sockerbeta och raps har vilda släktingar till vilka genspridning kan ske. 

För att kunna genomföra miljöriskbedömningar av genmodifierade grödor med hänsyn till långsiktiga effekter och effekter på icke-målorganismer anser Naturvårdsverket att det finns ett behov av ytterligare kunskap avseende odling av GM-grödor under svenska förhållanden. Med utgångspunkt från de identifierade riskernas storlek anser Naturvårdsverket att det är särskilt angeläget att öka kunskaperna kring effekter på icke-målorganismer vid odling av herbicidtoleranta och insektsresistenta grödor, liksom kring resistensutveckling hos ogräs och spillplantor vid odling av herbicidtoleranta grödor. För detta krävs oberoende vetenskapliga studier.

Although sexual reproduction appears to be rare in many clonal plant species, the majority of clonal species show similar levels of genetic variation to non-clonal plant species. Aegopodium podagraria is a noxious garden weed and has become a successful invader in many natural habitats. Earlier studies have demonstrated population differentiation in life-history traits between different A. podagraria populations in Sweden. In this study, we used three methods to assess genetic variation in this species. Using analyses of molecular markers (chloroplast DNA PCR-RFLP and allozyme electrophoresis) we did not detect any variation between different A. podagraria clones. However, a multivariate analysis of leaflet shape in five populations from central Sweden revealed considerable variation both within and between populations. The variation found in leaflet shape is suggested to be genetically based because the leaves were collected from plants grown from seed under similar conditions in a common garden environment. These relatively high levels of variation within and between populations indicate that there is likely to be repeated seedling recruitment within established populations. © The Authors. Journal compilation.

Organic farming (OF) enhances top soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in croplands compared with conventional farming (CF), which can contribute to sequester C. As farming system differences in the amount of C inputs to soil (e.g. fertilization and crop residues) are not enough to explain such increase, shifts in crop residue traits important for soil C losses such as litter decomposition may also play a role. To assess whether crop residue (leaf and root) traits determined SOC sequestration responses to OF, we coupled a global meta-analysis with field measurements across a European-wide network of sites. In the meta-analysis, we related crop species averages of leaf N, leaf-dry matter content, fine-root C and N, with SOC stocks and sequestration responses in OF vs. CF. Across six European sites, we measured the management-induced changes in SOC stocks and leaf litter traits after long-term ecological intensive (e.g. OF) vs. CF comparisons. Our global meta-analysis showed that the positive OF-effects on soil respiration, SOC stocks, and SOC sequestration rates were significant even in organic farms with low manure application rates. Although fertilization intensity was the main driver of OF-effects on SOC, leaf and root N concentrations also played a significant role. Across the six European sites, changes towards higher leaf litter N in CF also promoted lower SOC stocks. Our results highlight that crop species displaying traits indicative of resource-acquisitive strategies (e.g. high leaf and root N) increase the difference in SOC between OF and CF. Indeed, changes towards higher crop residue decomposability was related with decreased SOC stocks under CF across European sites. Synthesis and applications. Our study emphasizes that, with management, changes in crop residue traits contribute to the positive effects of organic farming (OF) on soil carbon sequestration. These results provide a clear message to land managers: the choice of crop species, and more importantly their functional traits (e.g. leave and root nitrogen), should be considered in addition to management practices and climate, when evaluating the potential of OF for climate change mitigation. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Applied Ecology © 2018 British Ecological Society

Biotechnology offers extensive possibilities to incorporate new traits into organisms. Genetically modified (GM) traits relevant for agro-ecosystems include traits such as pest resistance and herbicide tolerance in crop plants, increased growth rate in fish and livestock, and enhanced nitrogen-fixation capabilities of soil microbes. In this review, we evaluated the direct and indirect trait-specific effects of GM plants, microbes, and animals on ecosystem processes and found that most of the effects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) on ecosystem processes are indirect and are the result of associated changes in management strategy rather than a direct effect of the GMOs. Conflicting results on the performance and effects of GMOs are frequently reported, especially regarding crop yield and impacts on soil organisms. This is partly because methods with different levels of resolution have been used in different ecological contexts. Overall, there is little evidence that the effects of GM traits on ecosystem processes act with different mechanisms from those of traits modified using conventional methods. However, little is known about trait-specific effects of GMOs on ecosystem processes even though GMOs have been used for more than three decades. In particular, studies linking genetically modified traits to ecosystem processes at longer time scales are rare, but needed for evaluating trait effects, especially in an evolutionary context. In addition, biotechnology may provide a unique tool for gaining insights into the links between traits and ecosystem processes when integrated into basic ecological research. © 2015 Elsevier B.V.

Pollination success is important for crop yield, but may be cultivar dependent. Less is known about which floral traits influence pollination success. Floral traits, e.g. traits related to attraction and reward, can also contribute to gene flow via pollen, the latter being ofparticular importance in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) where gene flow occurs between plants of crop, volunteer and feral origin as well as related taxa. We investigated the relationship between pollen load size and seed set in winter oilseed rape. We compared variability in pollen-viability traits, flower production (flowers from the main raceme times number of branches) and seed number and weight per siliqua among cultivars and feralpopulations (growing outside of agricultural fields) under controlled conditions. Both seednumber and weight were saturated at relatively low pollen loads in the tested cultivar. Pollen viability and estimated flower production differed among cultivars, indicating that these traits could contribute to yield variability. Seed weight per siliqua, but not pollen traits or flower production, was lower in ferals compared to cultivars. Thus, while the probability of establishment may be reduced in ferals (due to lower seed weight per siliqua) this will not necessarily impact their contribution to gene flow via pollen. In oilseed rape a relatively low pollen load may be sufficient for full seed set in some cultivars, suggesting less dependence on insect pollination for high yield than generally expected. Our results also showed that previously less investigated floral traits, such as pollen viability, pollen tube growth rate and flower number, can differ between cultivars. Studies of these traits may provide targets for increasing crop yield and provide general knowledge about gene flow between cultivated, feral and related wild populations. © 2018 Lankinen et al.

Under 2011 undersökte vi pollenegenskaper och fröproduktion hos sju höstrapssorter och fem spillrapspopulationer med syftet att påbörja en kartläggning av skillnader som kan ha betydelse för behovet av insektspollinering och genflöde. Målet var att få ökad kunskap om rapsens blombiologi, det vill säga kunskap om blommans pollination och befruktning som är själva grunden till fröskörden. Försöken är en del av ett doktorandprojekt om insektspollinering i odlade grödor, där insektspollineringens betydelse för rapsskörden även undersöks i storskaliga fältförsök.

Whilst life cycle assessment (LCA) boundaries are expanded to account for negative indirect consequences of bioenergy such as indirect land use change (ILUC), ecosystem services such as water purification sometimes delivered by perennial bioenergy crops are typically neglected in LCA studies. Consequential LCA was applied to evaluate the significance of nutrient interception and retention on the environmental balance of unfertilised energy willow planted on 50-m riparian buffer strips and drainage filtration zones in the Skåne region of Sweden. Excluding possible ILUC effects and considering oil heat substitution, strategically planted filter willow can achieve net global warming potential (GWP) and eutrophication potential (EP) savings of up to 11.9 Mg CO2e and 47 kg PO4e ha−1year−1, respectively, compared with a GWP saving of 14.8 Mg CO2e ha−1 year−1 and an EP increase of 7 kg PO4e ha−1 year−1 for fertilised willow. Planting willow on appropriate buffer and filter zones throughout Skåne could avoid 626 Mg year−1 PO4e nutrient loading to waters. © 2016, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Decentralized anaerobic digestion (AD) of manure and organic residues is a possible strategy to improve carbon and nutrient cycling within agricultural regions, meanwhile generating renewable energy. To date, there has been limited adoption of decentralized AD technology in industrialized countries owing to low profitability for plant operators. There remains a need to demonstrate the wider sustainability of small-scale, decentralized AD in order to justify policy support for such a strategy. This study applies a multi-dimensional assessment of the environmental, economic and social sustainability of two scenarios of decentralized, farm-scale AD of pig slurry and organic residues in Southern Sweden. The environmental dimension was assessed by means of an expanded boundary life cycle assessment, in which trade-offs between fertilizer replacement, soil organic carbon accumulation, digestate/manure storage and application, transport and soil emissions were evaluated. The economic dimension was assessed through modelling of the net present value and internal rate of return. Finally, the social dimension was assessed by means of a stakeholder perception inquiry among key stakeholders in the field. It was concluded that the overall environmental balance of decentralized AD was favorable, while also the net present value could be positive. Fertilizer replacement, soil organic carbon and digestate storage effects were identified as important factors that should be accounted for in future life cycle assessments. A key issue for interviewed stakeholders was product quality assurance. Wider application of multi-dimensional sustainability assessment, capturing important nutrient cycling effects, could provide an evidence base for policy to support sustainable deployment of decentralized AD. © 2018 Elsevier B.V.

I Skåne kan klimatförändringarna förbättra förutsättningarna för produktion av grödor och annan biomassa via förlängd växtsäsong och ökad tillväxt. Samtidigt ökar dock risker för skador, sjukdomar och insektsangrepp.

En intensifiering av jordbruk för att ta vara på ökad produktionspotential och för att möta ett ökat behov av biomassa riskerar att förvärra problem som redan finns när det gäller förlust av biologisk mångfald, utsläpp av växthusgaser, läckage av näringsämnen och bekämpningsmedel samt fragmentering och degenerering av naturliga habitat.

Förebyggande arbete för att stärka ekosystemtjänster kopplade till skadedjursreglering, vattenreglering, klimatreglering och minskat kväveläckage förbättrar förutsättningarna för en långsiktigt hållbar produktion.

Jordbruket i Sverige regleras till stor del av EUs jordbrukspolitik, men frågor om skyddande och bevarande av ekosystemtjänster och biologisk mångfald har en tydlig lokal och regional prägel