Sport psychological training seems to be a viable way of facilitating development and performance for adult athletes, and even though sport psychological training for young athletes is less investigated, research indicates that talented athletes can benefit from sport psychological training as well. The aim of this thesis is to review and add to the current knowledge on sport psychological training for young elite athletes, and to investigate sport psychological interventions for young elite athletes. This will aid the development of sport psychological training programs for young elite athletes.

This thesis investigates sport psychological training for young elite athletes through two approaches. First, three reviews are performed: a review of psychological skills and characteristics needed for successful talent development, a review of current talent development theories and models, and a review of sport psychological interventions for young athletes. Second, four research studies are reported. These studies investigate sport psychological interventions for young elite athletes.

In the chapter entitled “Sport Psychological Training for Young Elite Athletes”, the three reviews of the literature are conducted. First, a review of studies investigating sport psychological skills and characteristics needed for successful development reveals three skills/characteristics that seems to be mentioned repeatedly in the literature, namely motivation, social skills, and self-regulation. Second, a theoretical introduction to current talent development theories and models is given. Here, the Theory of Deliberate Practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993), the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (Côté, Baker, & Abernethy, 2007), the Lifespan Model (Wylleman & Reints, 2010), and the normative transitions faced by the athlete (Stambulova, 1994) are viewed with a focus on sport psychological training, with the aim of uncovering which psychological skills and characteristics, young athletes need to possess in order to develop and become successful elite 6 athletes. The result is an overview of the psychological skills and characteristics, an overview which supports the conclusions from the first review of psychological skills and characteristics needed for successful talent development – that motivation, social skills and self-regulation are important for successful development.

Third, a review of sport psychological interventions for young athletes is performed. The review reveals 37 studies, of which 10 used a sample that can be viewed as elite. Furthermore, the review reveals that interventions targeting the important skills and characteristics for talent development, motivation, social skills and self-regulation, are not thoroughly investigated with young participants. Therefore, it is decided to conduct four studies targeting motivation, social skills and self-regulation.

In the chapter entitled “Methodology”, the methodology of the intervention studies in this thesis is discussed. The chapter starts with discussing important points regarding intervention studies, namely the theoretical underpinning of the intervention, randomised control trials compared with quasi-experimental studies, length of the intervention, whether the intervention had an effect, and the dual position of the researcher.

This is followed by an introduction to mixed methods, namely the ontology, epistemology, and methodology of using both quantitative and qualitative methods to obtain data about the phenomenon under scrutiny, and it is defined, which methodological standpoint has supported the methods of this thesis, namely the pragmatic standpoint. Two mixed methods frameworks are presented (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007; Östlund, Kidd, Wengström, & Rowa-Dewar, 2011), and the studies in the thesis are placed in these frameworks.

Lastly, measurement issues of questionnaire studies are discussed, with focus on reliability and validity of the data produced with questionnaires. The “Methodology” chapter is then followed by the four research studies.

Study 1 describes the effects of a three-month goal setting intervention on fear of failure in talented swimmers and track and field athletes. The goal setting group participated in 12 weekly goal setting sessions, while the control group did not. The effects were investigated primarily through questionnaire data gathered at baseline and at the end of the intervention, but qualitative interviews were also conducted to capture the participants’ experience of the intervention. It was concluded that goal setting can be used to decrease fear of failure in young elite athletes. This research article also includes a validation of the Achievement Motive Scale-Sport (Elbe & Wenhold, 2005) through confirmatory factor analysis.

Study 2 describes the effects of a three-month team building intervention on social cohesion in young elite football players. The intervention group participated in 12 weekly team building sessions, while the control group did not. Effects were investigated with questionnaire data gathered at baseline and end of the intervention, as well as with qualitative interviews. Statistical results suggested that social cohesion increased in the intervention group compared with the control group, and qualitative interviews supported this conclusion. Cohesion seems to be a possible target for interventions, even with teams that spend a lot of time together. The Group Cohesion Questionnaire (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985), which was used in this study, seemed to have problems with reliability, and possible reasons for this are discussed.

Study 3 describes the effects of a three-month relaxation intervention on levels of recovery in talented athletes attending high school. The effects in the intervention group compared with the control group were investigated via questionnaire data gathered with the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (Kellmann & Kallus, 2001) at baseline and at the end of the intervention, as well as with qualitative interviews with the intervention participants. While the statistical results indicated that there was no effect of the intervention, analysis of the qualitative interviews 8 suggested that the intervention had an impact on the participants. It was concluded that the intervention was effective. Suggestions for future interventions are given.

Study 4 describes the effects of a narrative-collaborative group coaching intervention on the recovery levels in young elite athletes in high school. The intervention group participated in eight 90-minute group coaching sessions distributed over 12 weeks, while the control group did not. Questionnaire data was gathered with the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (Kellmann & Kallus, 2001) at baseline and at end of the intervention, and qualitative interviews were conducted with the participants in the coaching groups. Statistical analyses suggested that the coaching intervention had an effect on social recovery and general well-being. These results were supported by the analysis of the qualitative interviews.

In the chapter “Main Findings”, the primary findings of the three reviews of current literature as well as the four intervention studies are reported. This is followed by the chapter “General Discussion”. Here, the four research studies are discussed in relation to existing literature, as well as in relation to the current talent development theories and models. This is followed by a general discussion not related to the literature reviews in the thesis. Limitations of the current thesis are described, as well as implications for future research and practice in talent development and sport psychological training.

Findings suggest that sport psychological training for young elite athletes is possible and important in order to give young athletes the best conditions to develop successfully into elite athletes. The reviews of psychological skills and characteristics, talent development theories and models, and sport psychological interventions for young athletes, as well as the four research studies can be used to inform research and practice in the future. © 2015, Johan Michael Wikman

Idrætspsykologisk træning synes at være en mulig måde at facilitere udvikling og præstation hos voksne, og selv om idrætspsykologisk træning for unge eliteudøvere er undersøgt i mindre grad, indikerer forskning at talentfulde udøvere også kan drage fordel af idrætspsykologisk træning. Formålet med denne afhandling er at gennemgå samt tilføje til eksisterende viden om idrætspsykologisk træning for unge eliteudøvere, og undersøge idrætspsykologiske interventioner for unge eliteudøvere.

Denne afhandling undersøger idrætspsykologisk træning gennem to fremgangsmåder. Først via tre litteraturgennemgange: en gennemgang af psykologiske færdigheder og egenskaber nødvendige for succesfuld talentudvikling, en gennemgang af aktuelle teorier og modeller for talentudvikling, og en gennemgang a idrætspsykologiske interventioner for unge eliteudøvere. Dernæst rapporteres fire forskningsstudier. Disse studier undersøger idrætspsykologiske interventioner for unge eliteudøvere

I kapitlet ””Sport Psychological Training for Young Elite Athletes” udføres de tre litteraturgennemgange. Først afslører en gennemgang af studier der undersøger psykologiske færdigheder og egenskaber som er nødvendige for succesfuld udvikling tre færdigheder/egenskaber, som ser ud til at blive nævnt gentagne gange i litteraturen, navnlig motivation, sociale færdigheder, og selv-regulering.

Dernæst gives en teoretisk introduktion til aktuelle teorier og modeller for talentudvikling. Her beskues The Theory of Deliberate Practice (Ericsson et al., 1993), the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (Côté et al., 2007), the Lifespan Model (Wylleman & Reints, 2010) og de normative transitioner, udøveren star overfor (Stambulova, 1994) med et fokus på idrætspsykologisk træning, med det formål at opklare hvilke psykologiske færdigheder og egenskaber, unge udøvere skal besidde for at udvikle sig og blive succesfulde eliteudøvere. 

Resultatet er en oversigt over psykologiske færdigheder og egenskaber, en oversigt som støtter konklusionerne fra den første gennemgang af psykologiske færdigheder og egenskaber, som er nødvendige for succesfuld talentudvikling – at motivation, sociale færdigheder og selv-regulering er vigtige for succesfuld udvikling.

Til sidst udføres en gennemgang af idrætspsykologiske interventioner for unge eliteudøvere. Gennemgangen afslører 37 studier, hvoraf 10 har brugt en stikprøve, der kan betragtes som elite. Yderligere afslører gennemgangen at interventioner rettet mod de vigtige færdigheder og egenskaber for talentudvikling, motivation, sociale færdigheder og selv-regulering, er ikke grundigt undersøgt med unge udøvere. Derfor besluttes det at udføre fire studier rettet mod motivation, sociale færdigheder, og selv-regulering.

I kapitlet ”Methodology” bliver metodologien i de fire interventionsstudier i denne afhandling diskuteret. Kapitlet starter med at diskutere vigtige pointer i forbindelse med interventionsstudier, nærmere bestemt interventionens teoretiske underbygning, randomiserede kontrol-studier overfor quasi-eksperimentelle studier, interventionens længde, hvorvidt interventionen havde en effekt, og forskerens dobbeltrolle.

Dette følges op af en introduktion til mixed methods, nærmere bestemt ontologien, epistemologien og metodologien i brugen af både kvantitative og kvalitative metoder for at indhente data om fænomenet under lup, og det defineres, hvilket metodologisk standpunkt har støttet metoderne i denne afhandling. To rammer for mixed methods præsenteres (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007; Östlund et al., 2011), og studierne i denne afhandling placeres i rammerne.

Til sidst diskuteres spørgsmål om måling af data i spørgeskemastudier, med fokus på pålidelighed og gyldighed i det data, der produceres med spørgeskemaer. Efter kapitlet ”Methodology” følger de fire forskningsstudier.

Study 1 beskriver effekterne af en tre måneder lang målsætningsintervention på angsten for at fejle hos talentfulde svømmere og atletikudøvere. Målsætningsgruppen deltog i 12 ugentlige målsætningssessioner, mens kontrolgruppen ikke gjorde. Effekterne blev primært undersøgt med spørgeskemadata indsamlet ved begyndelsen af og i slutningen af interventionen, men kvalitative interviews blev også foretaget for at indfange deltagernes oplevelse af interventionen. Det blev konkluderet, at målsætning kan bruges til at nedbringe angsten for at fejle hos unge eliteudøvere. Denne forskningsartikel indeholder også en validering af Achievement Motive Scale-Sport (Elbe & Wenhold, 2005) gennem konfirmatorisk faktoranalyse.

Study 2 beskriver effekterne af en tre måneders team building intervention på social kohæsion hos unge elitefodboldspillere. Interventionsgruppen deltog i 12 ugentlige sessioner med team building, mens kontrolgruppen ikke gjorde. Effekterne blev undersøgt med spørgeskemadata indsamlet ved begyndelsen og i slutningen af interventionen, såvel som med kvalitative interviews. Statistiske resultater antydede at social kohæsion steg i interventionsgruppen sammenlignet med kontrolgruppen, og kvalitative interviews støttede denne konklusion. Kohæsion synes at være et muligt mål for interventioner, selv hos hold der bruger meget tid sammen. Group Cohesion Questionnaire (Carron et al., 1985), som blev brugt i dette studie, syntes at have problemer med pålidelighed, og mulige årsager til dette bliver diskuteret.

Study 3 beskriver effekterne af en tre måneders afslapningsintervention på niveauet af genopladning (recovery) hos talentfulde udøvere i gymnasiet. Effekterne i interventionsgruppen sammenlignet med kontrolgruppen blev undersøgt via spørgeskemadata indsamlet med Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (Kellmann & Kallus, 2001) ved begyndelsen af og i slutningen af interventionen, samt med kvalitative interviews med interventionsdeltagerne. Mens statistiske resultater indikerede at der ikke var nogen interventionseffekt, antydede analyse af de kvalitative 12 interviews, at interventionen havde haft en virkning hos deltagerne. Det blev konkluderet, at interventionen havde en effekt. Anbefalinger til afvikling af fremtidige interventioner bliver givet. Study 4 beskriver effekterne af en narrativ-kollaborativ grupppecoaching intervention på niveauet af genopladning (recovery) hos unge eliteudøvere i gymnasiet. Interventionsgruppen deltog i 8 90- minutters gruppecoachingsessioner fordelt over 12 uger, mens kontrolgruppen ikke gjorde. Spørgeskemadata blev indsamlet med Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (Kellmann & Kallus, 2001) ved begyndelsen og i slutningen af interventionen, og kvalitative interviews blev afviklet med deltagerne i coachinggrupperne. Statiske analyser antydede at coachinginterventionen havde en effekt på social genopladning (social recovery) og generelt velbefindende. Disse resultater blev understøttet af analysen af de kvalitative interviews.

I kapitlet ”Main Findings” rapporteres de primære fund fra de tre litteraturgennemgange, såvel som de fire interventionsstudier. Herefter følger kapitlet ”General Discussion”. Her diskuteres de fire forskningsstudier i relation til den eksisterende litteratur, såvel som i relation til de aktuelle teorier og modeller for talentudvikling. Det er efterfulgt af en generel diskussion, som ikke er relateret til de litteraturgennemgange først i afhandlingen. Afhandlingens begrænsninger beskrives, ligesom implikationer for fremtidig forskning og praksis indenfor talentudvikling og idrætspsykologisk træning.

Fundene antyder at idrætspsykologisk træning for unge eliteudøvere er muligt og vigtigt for at give de unge udøvere de bedste betingelser for at udvikle sig succesfuldt til eliteudøvere. Litteraturgennemgangene psykologiske færdigheder og egenskaber, teorier og modeller for talentudvikling, og idrætspsykologiske intervention for unge udøvere, såvel som de fire forskningsstudier kan bruges til at bedrive fremtidig forskning og praksis. © 2015, Johan Michael Wikman